This section includes a, related reading or, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks. Please help to this section by more precise citations. ( April 2012) Hydrology has been a subject of investigation and engineering for millennia. For example, about 4000 BC the Nile was dammed to improve agricultural productivity of previously barren lands. Towns were protected from flooding with high earthen walls.

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Were built by the and, while the shows they built irrigation and flood control works. The ancient used hydrology to build complex irrigation works in, also known for invention of the Valve Pit which allowed construction of large reservoirs, and canals which still function., in the first century BC, described a philosophical theory of the hydrologic cycle, in which precipitation falling in the mountains infiltrated the Earth's surface and led to streams and springs in the lowlands. With adoption of a more scientific approach, and independently reached an accurate representation of the hydrologic cycle. It was not until the 17th century that hydrologic variables began to be quantified.Pioneers of the modern science of hydrology include,. By measuring rainfall, runoff, and drainage area, Perrault showed that rainfall was sufficient to account for flow of the Seine. Marriotte combined velocity and river cross-section measurements to obtain discharge, again in the Seine. Halley showed that the evaporation from the was sufficient to account for the outflow of rivers flowing into the sea.Advances in the 18th century included the Bernoulli and, by, and the,.

The 19th century saw development in groundwater hydrology, including, the Dupuit-Thiem well formula, and Hagen-'s capillary flow equation.Rational analyses began to replace empiricism in the 20th century, while governmental agencies began their own hydrological research programs. Of particular importance were Leroy Sherman's, the infiltration theory of, and C.V. Theis's aquifer test/equation describing well hydraulics.Since the 1950s, hydrology has been approached with a more theoretical basis than in the past, facilitated by advances in the physical understanding of hydrological processes and by the advent of computers and especially (GIS). (See also )Themes. Main article:The central theme of hydrology is that water circulates throughout the through different pathways and at different rates. The most vivid image of this is in the evaporation of water from the ocean, which forms clouds. These clouds drift over the land and produce rain.

The rainwater flows into lakes, rivers, or aquifers. The water in lakes, rivers, and aquifers then either evaporates back to the atmosphere or eventually flows back to the ocean, completing a cycle. Water changes its state of being several times throughout this cycle.The areas of research within hydrology concern the movement of water between its various states, or within a given state, or simply quantifying the amounts in these states in a given region. Parts of hydrology concern developing methods for directly measuring these flows or amounts of water, while others concern modelling these processes either for scientific knowledge or for making prediction in practical applications.Groundwater. Building a map of groundwater contoursGround water is water beneath Earth's surface, often pumped for drinking water. Groundwater hydrology considers quantifying groundwater flow and solute transport.

Problems in describing the saturated zone include the characterization of aquifers in terms of flow direction, groundwater pressure and, by inference, groundwater depth (see: ). Measurements here can be made using a. Aquifers are also described in terms of hydraulic conductivity, storativity and transmissivity. There are a number of geophysical methods for characterising aquifers. There are also problems in characterising the vadose zone (unsaturated zone). Infiltration.

Main article:Infiltration is the process by which water enters the soil. Some of the water is absorbed, and the rest down to the.

The infiltration capacity, the maximum rate at which the soil can absorb water, depends on several factors. The layer that is already saturated provides a resistance that is proportional to its thickness, while that plus the depth of water above the soil provides the driving force. Dry soil can allow rapid infiltration by; this force diminishes as the soil becomes wet. Reduces the porosity and the pore sizes. Surface cover increases capacity by retarding runoff, reducing compaction and other processes.

Higher temperatures reduce, increasing infiltration.: 250–275 Soil moisture. Main article:Soil moisture can be measured in various ways; by,. Other methods include solute sampling and geophysical methods.Surface water flow Hydrology considers quantifying surface water flow and solute transport, although the treatment of flows in large rivers is sometimes considered as a distinct topic of hydraulics or hydrodynamics.

Surface water flow can include flow both in recognizable river channels and otherwise. Methods for measuring flow once water has reached a river include the (see: ), and tracer techniques. Other topics include chemical transport as part of surface water, sediment transport and erosion.One of the important areas of hydrology is the interchange between rivers and aquifers. Groundwater/surface water interactions in streams and aquifers can be complex and the direction of net water flux (into surface water or into the aquifer) may vary spatially along a stream channel and over time at any particular location, depending on the relationship between stream stage and groundwater levels.Precipitation and evaporation In some considerations, hydrology is thought of as starting at the land-atmosphere boundary and so it is important to have adequate knowledge of both precipitation and evaporation. Precipitation can be measured in various ways: for precipitation characteristics at a fine time scale; for cloud properties, rain rate estimation, hail and snow detection; for routine accurate measurements of rain and snowfall; for rainy area identification, rain rate estimation, land-cover/land-use, and soil moisture, for example.is an important part of the water cycle.

It is partly affected by humidity, which can be measured by a. It is also affected by the presence of snow, hail and ice and can relate to dew, mist and fog. Hydrology considers evaporation of various forms: from water surfaces; as transpirationfrom plant surfaces in natural and agronomic ecosystems. A direct measurement of evaporation can be obtained using Simon's.Detailed studies of evaporation involve boundary layer considerations as well as momentum, heat flux and energy budgets.Remote sensing. Main article:Remote sensing of hydrologic processes can provide information on locations where in situ sensors may be unavailable or sparse.

It also enables observations over large spatial extents. Many of the variables constituting the terrestrial water balance, for example storage, and and, are measurable using remote sensing at various spatial-temporal resolutions and accuracies. Sources of remote sensing include land-based sensors, airborne sensors and which can capture, data or use, for example.Water quality. Main article:In hydrology, studies of water quality concern organic and inorganic compounds, and both dissolved and sediment material. In addition, water quality is affected by the interaction of dissolved oxygen with organic material and various chemical transformations that may take place.

Measurements of water quality may involve either in-situ methods, in which analyses take place on-site, often automatically, and laboratory-based analyses and may include.Integrating measurement and modelling. Budget analyses.

Parameter estimation. Scaling in time and space. Quality control of data – see for examplePrediction Observations of hydrologic processes are used to make of the future behaviour of hydrologic systems (water flow, water quality). One of the major current concerns in hydrologic research is 'Prediction in Ungauged Basins' (PUB), i.e. In basins where no or only very few data exist.Statistical hydrology By analyzing the statistical properties of hydrologic records, such as rainfall or river flow, hydrologists can estimate future hydrologic phenomena. When making assessments of how often relatively rare events will occur, analyses are made in terms of the of such events.

Other quantities of interest include the average flow in a river, in a year or by season.These estimates are important for and economists so that proper can be performed to influence investment decisions in future infrastructure and to determine the yield reliability characteristics of water supply systems. Statistical information is utilized to formulate operating rules for large dams forming part of systems which include agricultural, industrial and demands.Modeling. Main article:Hydrological models are simplified, conceptual representations of a part of the hydrologic cycle. They are primarily used for hydrological prediction and for understanding hydrological processes, within the general field of. Two major types of hydrological models can be distinguished:.

Models based on data. These models are systems, using mathematical and statistical concepts to link a certain input (for instance rainfall) to the model output (for instance ). Commonly used techniques are,.

The simplest of these models may be linear models, but it is common to deploy non-linear components to represent some general aspects of a catchment's response without going deeply into the real physical processes involved. An example of such an aspect is the well-known behavior that a catchment will respond much more quickly and strongly when it is already wet than when it is dry. Models based on process descriptions. These models try to represent the physical processes observed in the real world. Typically, such models contain representations of, and, but they can be far more complicated.

These models are known as deterministic hydrology models. Deterministic hydrology models can be subdivided into single-event models and continuous simulation models.Recent research in hydrological modeling tries to have a more global approach to the understanding of the to make better predictions and to face the major challenges in water resources management.Transport. a software tool for hydrologic modellers. (Water Evaluation And Planning) software to model catchment hydrology from climate and land use dataOther water-related fields. is the more general study of water in the oceans and estuaries.

is the more general study of the atmosphere and of weather, including precipitation as snow and rainfall. is the study of lakes, rivers and wetlands ecosystems. It covers the biological, chemical, physical, geological, and other attributes of all inland waters (running and standing waters, both fresh and saline, natural or man-made).

are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Hydrology studies the availability of those resources, but usually not their uses.References.

Anderson, Malcolm G.; McDonnell, Jeffrey J., eds. Encyclopedia of hydrological sciences.

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Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Hendriks, Martin R. Introduction to physical hydrology.

Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hornberger, George M.; Wiberg, Patricia L.; Raffensperger, Jeffrey P.; D'Odorico, Paolo P. Elements of physical hydrology (2nd ed.). Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. Maidment, David R., ed. Handbook of hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

McCuen, Richard H. Hydrologic analysis and design (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson-Prentice Hall. Viessman, Jr., Warren; Gary L.

Lewis (2003). Introduction to hydrology (5th ed.).

Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education.External links Look up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Amy: What have you been pulled over 1 for?Curtis: I’ve been pulled over for tailgating 2 an ambulance.Amy: Oh, my God. I didn’t think that was the story he was going to pick.Curtis: No, this is a very, very bad thing to do. I don’t recommend you doing this.Amy: Okay. What’s tailgating?Curtis: Tailgating is following somebody too close. So usually you have to leave a carlength in between the car in front of you and your car. And I at that point Amy: Had a very, very bad habit of driving way too close.Curtis: Right.

And in between–or I was in between the emergency ambulance vehicle infront of me and a police car behind me. But I didn’t know it was a police car because itdidn’t have the lights.Amy: Oh, it was a ghost car 3.Curtis: It was a ghost car.Amy: Sneaky 4.Curtis: Or an unmarked car. Yeah.Amy: Right. An unmarked car.Curtis: And right away, he turned on his lights that were on his dashboard and the front ofhis car and his siren. And he was mad.Amy: He was.Curtis: But I got lucky 5 on that one too. Even though he was mad, he didn’t give me aticket.Amy: Yeah. Sometimes they let you off.

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They–like they let you off the hook 6 or I don’tknow. They give you, what is it? A warning?Curtis: A warning 7Amy: Yeah, they give you a warning. Don’t do it again.

It’s a written warning.And it goes on record that you’ve been warned about this. But they don’t actually giveyou a fine.Curtis: Yeah. He kept track of it for sure. Phrase Explanations:. Pulled over: Stopped by the police. Tailgating: Driving very closely to the vehicle in front of you.

Ghost car: A police car with no lights or markings. Also known as an unmarked car. Sneaky: Doing something in a secret, unfair or not obvious way. I got lucky: To have good luck unexpectedly. Let you off the hook: When you get caught doing something wrong or illegal and you don’t get punished for it. ‘Let you off’ is the short way of expressing this. Warning: An official notice that you have been warned not to do something againThe full of lesson of ‘Driving’ is available when you join as a Free Member!

Listen to Smith’s Experience HereMy name is Smith and I am from Haiti. I am really happy to have signed up for Real English Conversations because it has really helped me improve my listening and speaking skills. And thanks to the teacher, Amy Whitney, who also acts as a researcher on how to learn a foreign language more efficiently. So, thanks to her good advice and methodology about how to deeply work out my listening and how to stick with my speaking practice, even without having someone to talk to, I have been able to gradually improve my English in many ways. About the Teachers on Real English ConversationsCurtis and I (Amy) are from Canada in North America.

We have a passion for traveling and teaching real English to help students improve their communication skills.Learning a language as an adult is challenging. I have first hand experience learning a second language to fluency.After taking vacations in several countries in Central and South America, we decided to follow our dreams and move to another country.Now, we live in Mexico. Even after moving to this country, I realized that living here and breathing in the Mexican air was not helping my Spanish skills.After all, I work from home teaching online and I don’t spend the entire day speaking to people. The truth is that improving a language takes practice, consistency and a desire to improve.In our, I teach students effective ways to practice English to improve speaking and listening skills using the techniques and unique methods I have discovered or created. The same methods that helped me reach fluency and maintain my current conversation abilities my new language, even though, I don’t have much time to practice.To get started with one of our lessons now, signup here to receive an interesting conversation lesson here. Let us show you how you can use naturally spoken English conversations to:. Learn the vocabulary native speakers actually use.

Understand more of what you hear. Practice speaking to use the new words you learned. Naturally Spoken DialoguesWhen you study a naturally spoken conversation, you will start to see it is very different than what you read. Real conversations are full of pauses to think and small words or sounds to keep the ‘fluency’ of the conversation.Listening to scripted audio will not teach you how people Most courses don’t give enough emphasis to or give you the opportunity to do speaking fluency exercises. These are the 2 skills that are the most difficult for people to learn when they need to interact with real people in real life.

A Method Taught From Personal ExperienceAmy, who now knows Spanish, realized during her first conversation attempt that she did not know enough of the everyday vocabulary that people use when they chat with each other. She started to study conversational transcripts and MP3 audio lessons.This taught her the right vocabulary, and speaking patterns that helped her to understand much more from every conversation she heard It is natural that you want to study the things that are easy. Reading, writing and passive listening are EASY.If you want to be fluent in English, you need to put the same amount of effort into speaking and listening comprehension. Our website gives you techniques and activities you can use to improve your speaking skills and finally have a better experience when you communicate. English Speaking ExercisesWe have created this website for people just people like you.

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Someone who wants to speak easily, understand what they hear and learn new vocabulary in a natural way.It is important that you start using the words and grammar rules that you know And you have to practice speaking with them A LOT. The harder it is for you to speak, the more you need to practice.Each conversation lesson has exercises to help you practice what you have heard in the English conversation. You can listen to conversational English questions that you have to answer by speaking.This resource in our premium section is the most important part that will help you speak with more fluency. The harder it is for you to speak, the more you need to practice.Our speaking course has dozens of techniques and exercises to help you practice speaking even if you do not have a speaking practice partner. Learn the techniques and exercises you can do to become a fluent, confident speaker fast. Improve your English ListeningAmy knows from personal experience how it can be difficult to develop your in a new language in the beginning. Windows desktop wallpaper windows 7. This is something she has had to work at very hard to improve.She found that listening to slower audio while reading a transcription helped her to improve her listening skills very quickly.

This is why we have created a full transcript of each one of our American English Conversations.The truth is that ‘hearing’ the words is one skill but being able to understand everything you hear is another thing. It takes practice and patience. The truth is that ‘good listening’ takes time and practice.Not everyone develops great listening skills automatically. We’ve got all the resources you need including MP3 downloads and PDF English transcriptions to read while listening. If you are ready to start improving your English Conversations, especially your listening skills, Learn Using Real ConversationsHave you ever noticed that there are many ESL lessons for beginner students but there is hardly anything available for intermediate and advanced students?The truth is that most people that try to learn conversational English don’t make it to this level, most websites are focused on beginners. Everything on this website was created for intermediate and advanced students that need to get exposed to ‘normal’ everyday Conversations.Our lessons are different because we have also learned another language as an adult and know better tools and techniques that we can show you.Learn English faster, with the resources we have created to study and learn from conversation lessons.

If your goal is to be able to have enjoyable English Conversations, you should be studying conversational English.Why would you waste time studying a textbook with more rules or learn words by studying lists of words that no one uses in real life? Grammar rules are for beginners. Intermediate and advanced students need to listen to lots of topics and learn to speak about those topics without worrying about the ‘rules’. At REC, we know exactly what you need to learn fast. Thanks to Real Engish Conversations, I learned a lot of new things, your website is great. I like it so much, they have so much helpful information for people who want to learn English and with their methods of teaching they make so easy to understand all the information that they provide. Thanks to their everyday conversations, I feel more confident when I need to talk, I have a better flow while speaking and that is so important because my profession demands a good level of English, I’m a professional pilot, thanks so much to Amy and Curtis for taking your time to help people to learn, you are awesome people.

Keep up the good work and thanks for everything! AlfredoPilot in Argentina. Hello, my name is Manel. I’m from Mallorca, Spain. I’m just writing to thank you for your amazing podcast.

I’m studying to pass the TOEFL exam and it’s really helpful to hear you talking about different topics which are very enjoyable. I love the language, that is one of the main reasons why I decided to become a primary school teacher. I’m thinking about moving to USA in order to improve my level and discover a new culture, new places and also live new experiences. Congratulations and thank you very much for everything you’ve done for all of your listeners to understand more from each conversation! Manel B.Spain.